Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) Another characteristic feature, one that was to be much criticized by Chomsky, was its attemptto formulate a set of “discovery procedures”—procedures that could be applied more or less mechanically to texts and could be guaranteed to yield an appropriate phonological and grammatical description of the language of the texts.
B) Structuralism, in this narrower sense of the term, is represented, with differences of emphasis or detail, in the major American textbooks published during the 1950s.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) In certain conditions of intermediate illumination, the rod response and a weak cone response can together results in color discriminations not accounted for by cone responses alone.
B) These effects, combined, are summarized also in the Kruithof curve, that describes the change of color perception and pleasingness of light as function of temperature and intensity.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) On the other hand, in dim light, the cones are understimulated leaving only the signal from the rods, resulting in a colorless response.
B) Furthermore, the rods are barely sensitive from light in the "red" range.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) And at least a part of “The Dream of the Rood” can was dated by an excerpt carved on the 8th-century Ruthwell Cross (in Dumfriesshire, Scotland).
B) But in the absence of such indications, Old English poems has hard to date, and the scholarly consensus that most were composed in the Midlands and the North in the 8th and 9th centuries has crumbled in recent years.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) As education has become more broadly disseminated throughout society by the schools, attention has shifted from theoretical or technical grammar as an intellectual preoccupation to prescriptive grammar suited to pedagogical purposes, which starting with Renaissance vernacular nationalism.
B) Grammar increasingly parted company with its older fellow disciplines within philosophy as they moved over to the domain known as natural science, and technical academic grammatical study has increasingly become involved with issues represented by empiricism versus rationalism and their successor manifestations on the academic scene.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) Few poems can be dated as closely as Caedmon's “Hymn.” King Alfred's compositions fall into the late 9th century, and Bede composed his “Death Song” within 50 days of his death on May 25, 735. Historical poems like “The Battle of Brunanburh” (after 937) and “The Battle of Maldon” (after 991) are fixed by the dates of the events they commemorate.
B) A translation of one of Aldhelm's riddles is found not only in the Exeter Book but also in an early 9th-century manuscript at Leiden; it can be no later than the Leiden manuscript.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) For example, it seem that the anomalists among the Stoics credited the irrational quality of language precisely to the claim that language did not exactly mirror nature.
B) In any event, the anomalist tradition in the hands of the Stoics brought grammar the benefit of their work in logic and rhetoric.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) If few poems can been dated accurately, still fewer can be attributed to particular poets.
B) The most important author from whom a considerable body of work survives is Cynewulf, who wove his runic signature into the epilogues of four poems.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) In the 17th century, members of Solitaires (a group of hermits who living in the deserted abbey of Port-Royal in France) produced a grammar that has exerted noteworthy continuing influence, even in contemporary theoretical discussion.
B) Drawing their basic view from scholastic logic as modified by rationalism, these people aimed to produce a philosophical grammar that would capture what were common to the grammars of languages—a general grammar, but not aprioristically universalist.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) It is Chomsky's system that has attracted the most attention so far. As first presented by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures (1957), transformational grammar can be seen partly as a reaction against post-Bloomfieldian structuralism and partly as a continuation of it.
B) What Chomsky reacted against most strongly was the post-Bloomfieldian concern with discovery procedures. In his opinion, linguistics should sets itself the more modest and more realistic goal of formulating criteria for evaluating alternative descriptions of a language without regard to the question of how these descriptions had been arrived at.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) Likewise, until the end of the 19th century, grammars of the exotic languages, written largely by missionaries and traders, were cast almost entirely in the Roman model, to which the Renaissance had added a limited medieval syntactic ingredient.
B) From time to time a degree of boldness may be seen in France: Petrus Ramus, a 16th-century logician, worked within a taxonomic framework of the surface shapes of words and inflections, such work entailing some of the attendant trivialities that modern linguistics has experienced (e.g., by dividing up Latin nouns on the basis of equivalence of syllable count among their case forms).
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A) Many now hold that “The Wanderer,” Beowulf, and other poems once assumed to be early are of the 9th or 10th century.
B) For most poems, little more than that they were written between the 8th and the 11th centuries can are said with certainty.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) Much of Greek philosophy were occupied with the distinction between that which exists “by nature” and that which exists “by convention.”
B) So in language it were natural to account for words and forms as ordained by nature (by onomatopoeia—i.e., by imitation of natural sounds) or as arrived at arbitrarily by a social convention.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) The most significant development in linguistic theory and research in recent years were the rise of generative grammar, and, more especially, of transformational-generative grammar, or transformational grammar, as it came to be known.
B) Two versions of transformational grammar was put forward in the mid-1950s, the first by Zellig S. Harris and the second by Noam Chomsky, his pupil.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) The statements make by linguists in describing a language should, however, be cast within the framework of a far more precise theory of grammar than had hitherto been the case, and this theory should be formalized in terms of modern mathematical notions.
B) Within a few years, Chomsky had broken with the post-Bloomfieldians on a number of other points also.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) This dispute regarding the origin of language and meanings paved the way for the development of divergences between the views of the “analogists,” who looked on language as possessing an essential regularity as a result of the symmetries that convention can provide, and the views of the “anomalists,” who pointed to language's lack of regularity as one facet of the inescapable irregularities of nature.
B) The situation were more complex, however, than this statement would suggest.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) This grammar has attracted recent attention because it employs certain syntactic formulations that resemble in detail contemporary transformational rules, which formulate the relationship between the various elements of a sentence.
B) Roughly from the 15th century to World War II, however, the version of grammar available to the Western public (together with its colonial expansion) remain basically that of Priscian with only occasional and subsidiary modifications, and the knowledge of new languages brought only minor adjustments to the serious study of grammar.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) This side of what was to become “grammatical” learning was distinctly applied, particular, and less exalted by comparison with other pursuits.
B) Most of the developments associated with theoretical grammar grew out of philosophy and criticism; and in these developments a repeated duality of themes crosses and intertwines.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) The other type of light-sensitive cell in the eye, the rod, have a different response curve.
B) In normal situations, when light is bright enough to strongly stimulates the cones, rods play virtually no role in vision at all.
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Верна ли грамматическая конструкция в данных предложениях?
A) The set of all possible tristimulus values determines the human color space.
B) It has been estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10 million different colors.
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Заполните пропуск:
It is customary to think of the Renaissance as a time of great flowering. There is no doubt that linguistic and philological developments ________ this period are interesting and significant.
Выберите возможные варианты: Various areas within macrolinguistics have been given terminological recognition: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, dialectology, mathematical and computational linguistics, and stylistics.
Выберите возможные варианты: According to the microlinguistic view, languages should be analyzed for their own sake and without reference to their social function, to the manner in which they are acquired by children, to the psychological mechanisms that underlie the production and reception of speech, to the literary and the aesthetic or communicative function of language, and so on.
Выберите возможные варианты: American and European structuralism shared a number of features. In insisting upon the necessity of treating each language as a more or less coherent and integrated system, both European and American linguists of this period tended to emphasize, if not to exaggerate, the structural uniqueness of individual languages.
Выберите возможные варианты: Another genre of writing involves simultaneous consideration of grammatical distinctions and scholastic logic; modern linguists are probably inadequately trained to deal with these writings.
Выберите возможные варианты: Certainly the most obviously interesting theorizing to be found in this period is contained in the “speculative grammar” of the modistae , who were so called because the titles of their works were often phrased De modis significandi tractatus (“Treatise Concerning the Modes of Signifying”).
Выберите возможные варианты: Colour symbolism serves important roles in art, religion, politics, and ceremonials, as well as in everyday life. Its strong emotional connotations can affect colour perception so that, for example, an apple- or heart-shaped figure cut from orange paper may seem to have a redder hue than a geometric figure cut from the same paper because of the specific psychological meaning that is associated with the shape.
Выберите возможные варианты: English literature is therefore not so much insular as detached from the continental European tradition across the Channel.
Выберите возможные варианты: Even in philosophical writings, popularly thought of as hard to combine with literary value, thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, David Hume, John Stuart Mill, and Bertrand Russell stand comparison for lucidity and grace with the best of the French philosophers and the masters of classical antiquity.
Выберите возможные варианты: For example, schizophrenics have been reported to have abnormal colour perception, and very young children learning to distinguish colours usually show a preference for red or orange.
Выберите возможные варианты: For the development of the Western grammatical tradition, work of this genre was the second great milestone after the crystallization of Greek thought with the Stoics and Alexandrians.
Выберите возможные варианты: In contrast, macrolinguistics embraces all of these aspects of language.
Выберите возможные варианты: In addition to emotional associations, factors that affect colour perception include the observer's age, mood, and mental health. People who share distinct personal traits often share colour perceptions and preferences.
Выберите возможные варианты: It is strong in all the conventional categories of the bookseller's list: in Shakespeare it has a dramatist of world renown; in poetry, a genre notoriously resistant to adequate translation and therefore difficult to compare with the poetry of other literatures, it is so peculiarly rich as to merit inclusion in the front rank; English literature's humour has been found as hard to convey to foreigners as poetry, if not more so—a fact at any rate permitting bestowal of the label “idiosyncratic”; English literature's remarkable body of travel writings constitutes another counterthrust to the charge of insularity; in autobiography, biography, and historical writing English literature compares with the best of any culture; and children's literature, fantasy, essays, and journals, which tend to be considered minor genres, are all fields of exceptional achievement as regards English literature.
Выберите возможные варианты: It was Saussure who drew the terminological distinction between synchronic and diachronic linguistics in the Cours; despite the undoubtedly structural orientation of his own early work in the historical and comparative field, he maintained that, whereas synchronic linguistics should deal with the structure of a language system at a given point in time, diachronic linguistics should be concerned with the historical development of isolated elements—it should be atomistic.
Выберите возможные варианты: John Rupert Firth (died 1960) and his followers, sometimes referred to as the London school, were less Saussurean in their approach,but, in a general sense of the term, their approach may also be described appropriately as structural linguistics.
Выберите возможные варианты: Macrolinguistics should not be identified with applied linguistics.
Выберите возможные варианты: Many languages contain expressions that use colour metaphorically (common examples in English include “green with envy,” “feeling blue,” “seeing red,” “purple passion,” “white lie,” and “black rage”) and therefore cannot always be translated literally into other languages because the colour may lose its associated symbolic meaning.
Выберите возможные варианты: Some of English literature's most distinguished practitioners in the 20th century—from Henry James and Joseph Conrad at its beginning to V.S. Naipaul and Tom Stoppard more recently—were of foreign origin.
Выберите возможные варианты: The aim of the grammarians was to explore how a word (an element of language) matched things apprehended by the mind and how it signified reality. Since a word cannot signify the nature of reality directly, it must stand for the thing signified in one of its modes or properties; it is this discrimination of modes that the study of categories and parts of speech is all about. Thus the study of sentences should lead one to the nature of reality by way of the modes of signifying.
Выберите возможные варианты: The application of linguistic methods and concepts to language teaching may well involve other disciplines in a way that microlinguistics does not.
Выберите возможные варианты: The colour of mourning is black in the West, yet other cultures use white, purple, or gold for this purpose.
Выберите возможные варианты: The most important of the various schools of structural linguistics to be found in Europe in the first half of the 20th century have included the Prague school, most notably represented by Nikolay Sergeyevich Trubetskoy (died 1938) and Roman Jakobson (born 1896), both Russian émigrés, and the Copenhagen (or glossematic) school, centred around Louis Hjelmslev (died 1965).
Выберите возможные варианты: The scholastic philosophers were occupied with relating words and things—i.e., the structure of sentences with the nature of the real world—hence their preoccupation with signification.
Выберите возможные варианты: What is more, none of the aforementioned had as much in common with his adoptive country as did, for instance, Doris Lessing and Peter Porter (two other distinguished writer-immigrants to Britain) by virtue both of having been born into a British family and of having been brought up on British Commonwealth soil.
Выберите возможные варианты: Whatever the reasons that led Saussure to take this rather paradoxical view, his teaching on this point was not generally accepted, and scholars soon began to apply structural concepts to the diachronic study of languages.
Выберите правильный вариант: Colours are not universal. Some languages do not contain separate words for green and blue or for yellow and orange, while Eskimos use 17 words for white as applied to different snow conditions.
Выберите правильный вариант: The most important aspect of colour in daily life is probably the one that is least defined and most variable.
Выберите правильный вариант: A synchronic description of a language describes the language as it is at a given time; a diachronic description is concerned with the historical development of the language and the structural changes that have taken place in it.
Выберите правильный вариант: All three of these impulses derived from a foreign source, namely the Mediterranean basin. The Decadents of the late19th century and modernists of the early 20th looked to continental European individuals and movements for inspiration.
Выберите правильный вариант: By langue, best translated in its technical Saussurean sense as language system, is meant the totality of regularities and patterns of formation that underlie the utterances of a language; by parole, which can be translated as language behaviour, is meant the actual utterances themselves.
Выберите правильный вариант: During the Renaissance the renewed interest in classical learning and values had an important effect on English literature, as on all of the arts; and ideas of Augustan literary propriety in the 18th century and reverence in the 19th century for a less specific, though still selectively viewed, classical antiquity continued to shape the literature.
Выберите правильный вариант: English literature has sometimes been stigmatized as insular. It can be argued that no single English novel attains the universality of the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace or the French writer Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary.
Выберите правильный вариант: English literature is the body of written works produced in the English language by inhabitants of the British Isles (including Ireland) from the 7th century to the present day.
Выберите правильный вариант: Finally, English literature has enjoyed a certain diffusion abroad, not only in predominantly English-speaking countries but also in all those others where English is the first choice of study as a second language.
Выберите правильный вариант: From this combination emerged a flexible and subtle linguistic instrument exploited by Geoffrey Chaucer and brought to supreme application by William Shakespeare.
Выберите правильный вариант: Further, Britain's past imperial glories around the globe, particularly those that were connected with the Indian subcontinent, continued to inspire literature—in some cases wistful, in other cases hostile.
Выберите правильный вариант: If a third hue is distinguished, it is red; next comes yellow or green, and then both yellow and green. Blue is the sixth colour named, and brown is the seventh. Finally, in no particular sequence, the colours gray, orange, pink, and purple are designated.
Выберите правильный вариант: In both cases “structuralism” is opposed to “atomism” in the European literature.
Выберите правильный вариант: In the early 1970s the majority of the known grammatical treatises had not yet been made available in full to modern scholarship, so that not even their true extent could be classified with confidence.
Выберите правильный вариант: It involves aesthetic and psychological responses to colour and influences art, fashion, commerce, and even physical and emotional sensations.
Выберите правильный вариант: It is possible that developments in grammar during the Middle Ages constitute one of the most misunderstood areas of the field of linguistics.
Выберите правильный вариант: It is difficult to relate this period coherently to other periods and to modern concerns because surprisingly little is accessible and certain, let alone analyzed with sophistication.
Выберите правильный вариант: It must be remembered, however, that the psychological perception of colour is subjective, and only general comments about its features and uses can be made.
Выберите правильный вариант: Just as two performances of a piece of music given by different orchestras on different occasions will differ in a variety of details and yet be identifiable as performances of the same piece, so two utterances may differ in various ways and yet be recognized as instances, in some sense, of the same utterance.
Выберите правильный вариант: Like colour terminology, colour harmony, colourpreferences, colour symbolism, and other psychological aspects of colour are culturally conditioned, and they vary considerably with both place and historical period.
Выберите правильный вариант: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
Выберите правильный вариант: Many linguists have found uncongenial the combination of medieval Latin learning and premodern philosophy.
Выберите правильный вариант: Much of what is now considered as Saussurean can be seen, though less clearly, in the earlier work of Humboldt, and the general structural principles that Saussure was to develop with respect to synchronic linguistics in the Cours had been applied almost 40 years before (1879) by Saussure himself in a reconstruction of the Indo-European vowel system.
Выберите правильный вариант: Nor was attraction toward European intellectualism dead in the late 20th century, for by the mid-1980s the approach known as structuralism, a phenomenon predominantly French and German in origin, infused the very study of English literature itself in a host of published critical studies and university departments.
Выберите правильный вариант: One cross-cultural study showed that American and Japanese concepts of warm and cold colours are essentially the same, but that in Japan blue and green hues are perceived to be “good” and the red-purple range as “bad,” while in the United States the red-yellow-green range is considered “good” and oranges and red-purples “bad.”
Выберите правильный вариант: One example of the link between colour and emotion is the common perception that red, orange, yellow, and brown hues are “warm,” while the blues, greens, and grays are “cold.”
Выберите правильный вариант: Some of the medieval treatises continue the tradition of grammars of late antiquity; so there are versions based on Donatus and Priscian, often with less incorporation of the classical poets and writers.
Выберите правильный вариант: Structural linguistics in Europe is generally said to have begun in 1916 with the posthumous publication of the Cours de Linguistique Générale (Course in General Linguistics) of Ferdinand de Saussure.
Выберите правильный вариант: The former refers to a narrower and the latter to a much broader view of the scope of linguistics.
Выберите правильный вариант: The major literatures written in English outside the British Isles are treated separately under American literature, Australian literature, Canadian literature, and New Zealand literature.
Выберите правильный вариант: The term structuralism has been used as a slogan and rallying cry by a number of different schools of linguistics, and it is necessary to realize that it has somewhat different implications according to the context in which it is employed. It is convenient to draw first a broad distinction between European and American structuralism and, then, to treat them separately.
Выберите правильный вариант: The differences were and are largely matters of attitude, emphasis, and purpose.
Выберите правильный вариант: The field of linguistics has almost completely neglected the achievements of this period.
Выберите правильный вариант: The field of linguistics may be divided in terms of three dichotomies: synchronic versus diachronic, theoretical versus applied, microlinguistics versus macrolinguistics.
Выберите правильный вариант: The full significance of the work was not appreciated at the time. Saussure's structuralism can be summed up in two dichotomies (which jointly cover what Humboldt referred to in terms of his own distinction of inner and outer form): (1) langue versus parole and (2) form versus substance.
Выберите правильный вариант: The goal of theoretical linguistics is the construction of a general theory of the structure of language or of a general theoretical framework for the description of languages; the aim of applied linguistics is the application of the findings and techniques of the scientific study of language to practical tasks, especially to the elaboration of improved methods of language teaching.
Выберите правильный вариант: The linguist, though he may be interested in written texts and in the development of languages through time, tends to give priority to spoken languages and to the problems of analyzing them as they operate at a given point in time.
Выберите правильный вариант: The philologist is concerned primarily with the historical development of languages as it is manifest in written texts and in the context of the associated literature and culture.
Выберите правильный вариант: The red, orange, and yellow hues are said to induce excitement, cheerfulness, stimulation, and aggression; the blues and greens security, calm, and peace; and the browns, grays, and blacks sadness, depression, and melancholy.
Выберите правильный вариант: The terms microlinguistics and macrolinguistics are not yet well established, and they are, in fact, used here purely for convenience.
Выберите правильный вариант: The word was first used in the middle of the 19th century to emphasize the difference between a newer approach to the study of language that was then developing and the more traditional approach of philology.
Выберите правильный вариант: These scholars used, wrote in, and studied Latin, a language that, though not their native tongue, was one in which they were very much at home; such scholars in groups must often have represented a highly varied linguistic background.
Выберите правильный вариант: These works must be analyzed and studied in the light of medieval learning, especially the learning of the schools of philosophy then current, in order to understand their true value and place.
Выберите правильный вариант: Two important points arise here: first, that the structural approach is not in principle restricted to synchronic linguistics; second, that the study of meaning, as well as the study of phonology and grammar, can be structural in orientation.
Выберите правильный вариант: What the two musical performances and the two utterances have in common is an identity of form, and this form, or structure, or pattern, is in principle independent of the substance, or “raw material,” upon which it is imposed.
Выберите правильный вариант: When colour terminology in different cultures is compared, certain patterns are observed consistently. All languages have designations for black and white.
Выберите правильный вариант: Yet in the Middle Ages the Old English literature of the subjugated Saxons was leavened by the Latin and Anglo-Norman French writings, eminently foreign in origin, in which the churchmen and the Norman conquerors expressed themselves.
Выберите правильный вариант: Yet medieval scholars might reasonably be expected to have bequeathed to modern scholarship the fruits of more than ordinarily refined perceptions of a certain order.
Выберите правильный вариант: “Structuralism,” in the European sense then, refers to the view that there is an abstract relational structure that underlies and is to be distinguished from actual utterances—a system underlying actual behaviour—and that this is the primary object of study for the linguist.
Заполните пропуск: For example, it is not possible to stimulate only the mid-wavelength (so-called "green") cones; the other cones will inevitably be stimulated ___________ some degree at the same time.
Заполните пропуск: Light, no matter how complex its composition of wavelengths, is reduced to three color components by the eye. For each location in the visual field, the three types of cones yield three signals based on the extent to which each is stimulated. These amounts _______ stimulation are sometimes called tristimulus values.
Заполните пропуск: One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most responsive to light that we perceive as violet, with wavelengths around 420 nm; cones __________ this type are sometimes called short-wavelength cones, S cones, or blue cones.
Заполните пропуск: The ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is based upon the varying sensitivity of different cells __________ the retina to light of different wavelengths. Humans being trichromatic, the retina contains three types of color receptor cells, or cones.
Заполните пропуск: The other two types are closely related genetically and chemically. One of them, sometimes called long-wavelength cones, L cones, or red cones, is most sensitive to light we perceive as greenish yellow, with wavelengths around 564nm; the other type, known as middle-wavelength cones, M cones, or green cones is most sensitive ________ light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 534nm.
Заполните пропуск: The response curve as a function of wavelength for each type of cone is illustrated above. Because the curves overlap, some tristimulus values do not occur _______ any incoming light combination.
Заполните пропуск: A study of Indian logic in relation to Pāṇinian grammar alongside Aristotelian and Western logic in relation___________ Greek grammar and its successors could bring illuminating insights.
Заполните пропуск: A thorough study _______ the medieval period would greatly enrich the discussion of current questions.
Заполните пропуск: Artists and designers have been studying the effects of colours for centuries and have developed a multitude _____________ theories on the uses of colour.
Заполните пропуск: As might be imagined, this perceptive Indian grammatical work has held great fascination ________ 20th-century theoretical linguists.
Заполните пропуск: Because science was still a long way from being able to give a comprehensive account of most stimuli, no significant or interesting results could be expected from the study of meaning for some considerable time, and it was preferable, as far as possible, to avoid basing the grammatical analysis ______ a language on semantic considerations.
Заполните пропуск: Bloomfield's followers pushed even further the attempt to develop methods of linguistic analysis that were not based on meaning. One _______ the most characteristic features of “post-Bloomfieldian” American structuralism, then, was its almost complete neglect of semantics.
Заполните пропуск: But it was Bloomfield who prepared the way for the later phase of what is now thought of as the most distinctive manifestation ________ American “structuralism.”
Заполните пропуск: But St. Bede the Venerable, in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (“Ecclesiastical History of the English People”), wrote that in the late 7th century Caedmon, an illiterate Northumbrian cowherd, was inspired in a dream to compose a short hymn ______ praise of the creation.
Заполните пропуск: But, aside from the fact that, beginning in the 15th century, serious grammars of European vernaculars were actually written, it is only in particular cases and for specific details (e.g., a mild alteration in the number ________ parts of speech or cases of nouns) that real departures from Roman grammar can be noted.
Заполните пропуск: Caedmon later composed verses based on Scripture, which was expounded for him by monks at Streaneshalch (Whitby), but only the “Hymn of Creation” survives. Caedmon legitimized the native verse form by adapting it to Christian themes. Others, following his example, gave England a body of vernacular poetry unparalleled in Europe ________ the end of the 1stmillennium.
Заполните пропуск: Earlier, the only non-Indo-European grammar _____ all widely accessible was that of the Hebrews (and to some extent Arabic); and Semitic in fact shares many categories with Indo-European in its grammar. Indeed, for many of the exotic languages scholarship barely passed beyond the most rudimentary initial collection of word lists; grammatical analysis was scarcely approached.
Заполните пропуск: Even though the study of Sanskrit grammar may originally have had the practical aim of keeping the sacred Vedic texts and their commentaries pure and intact, the study of grammar ________ India in the 1st millennium BC had already become an intellectual end in itself.
Заполните пропуск: In 1933, however, he published a drastically revised and expanded version with the new title Language ; this book dominated the field ________ the next 30 years.
Заполните пропуск: In addition to the poems in these books are historical poems in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; poetic renderings of Psalms 51–150; the 31 “Metres” included in King Alfred the Great's translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy; magical, didactic, elegiac, and heroic poems; and others, miscellaneously interspersed __________ prose, jotted in margins and even worked in stone or metal.
Заполните пропуск: In it Bloomfield explicitly adopted a behaviouristic approach to the study of language, eschewing in the name of scientific objectivity all reference _______ mental or conceptual categories.
Заполните пропуск: In the best poems such formulas, far from being tedious, give a strong impressionof the richness of the cultural fund from which poets could draw. Other standard devices of this poetry are the kenning, a metaphorical name for a thing, usually expressed in a compound noun (e.g., “swan-road” used to name the sea); and variation, the repeating of asingle idea in different words, with each repetition adding a new level ________ meaning. That these verse techniques changed little during 400 years of literary production suggests the extreme conservatism of Anglo-Saxon culture.
Заполните пропуск: In the field of grammar, the Renaissance did not produce notable innovation or advance. Generally speaking, there was a strong rejection __________ speculative grammar and a relatively uncritical resumption of late Roman views (as stated by Priscian).
Заполните пропуск: Most Old English poetry is preserved in four manuscripts of the late 10th and early 11th centuries. The Beowulf manuscript (British Library) contains Beowulf, Judith, and three prose tracts; the Exeter Book (Exeter cathedral) is a miscellaneous gathering ______ lyrics, riddles, didactic poems, and religious narratives; the Junius manuscript (Bodleian Library, Oxford) contains biblical paraphrases; and the Vercelli Book (cathedral library, Vercelli, Italy) contains saints' lives, several short religious poems, and prose homilies.
Заполните пропуск: Of particular consequence was his adoption of the behaviouristic theory of semantics according to which meaning is simply the relationship ___________ a stimulus and a verbal response.
Заполните пропуск: Sapir's work has always held an attraction __________ the more anthropologically inclined American linguists.
Заполните пропуск: The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who invaded Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries brought withthem the common Germanic metre; but of their earliest oral poetry, probably used for panegyric, magic, and short narrative, little ____ none survives. For nearly a century after the conversion of King Aethelberht I of Kent to Christianity in 597, there is no evidence that the English wrote poetry in their own language.
Заполните пропуск: The construction of sentences, compound nouns, and the like is explained through ordered rules operating on underlying structures ______ a manner strikingly similar in part to modes of contemporary theory.
Заполните пропуск: The emergence of grammatical learning in Greece is less clearly known than is sometimes implied, and the subject is more complex than is often supposed; here only the main strands can ________ sampled.
Заполните пропуск: The number and variety of these theories demonstrates that no universally accepted rules apply; the perception of colour depends ___________ individual experience.
Заполните пропуск: The poetry is formulaic, drawing on a common set of stock phrases and phrase patterns, applying standard epithets to various classes of characters, and depicting scenery with such recurring images as the eagle and wolf, which wait during battles _______ feast on carrion, and the ice and snow, which appear in the landscape to signal sorrow.
Заполните пропуск: The term hē grammatikē technē (“the art of letters”) had two senses. It meant the study of the values of the letters and of accentuation and prosody and, in this sense, was an abstract intellectual discipline; and it also meant the skill _______ literacy and thus embraced applied pedagogy.
Заполните пропуск: Thirdly, there is in the rules _____ definitions (sutras) of Pāṇini a remarkably subtle and penetrating account of Sanskrit grammar.
Заполните пропуск: This was somewhat understandable in the case of Latin or Greek grammars, since here the task was less evidently that of intellectual inquiry and more that of the schools, with the practical aim of gaining access ___________ the newly discovered ancients.
Заполните пропуск: Two new sets of data that modern linguists tend to take for granted became available to grammarians during this period: (1) the newly recognized vernacular languages of Europe, for the protection and cultivation of which there subsequently arose national academies and learned institutions that live down to the present day; and (2) the exotic languages __________ Africa, the Orient, the New World, and, later, of Siberia, Inner Asia, Papua, Oceania, the Arctic, and Australia, which the voyages of discovery opened up.
Заполните пропуск: Virtually all Old English poetry is written in a single metre, a four-stress line with a syntactical break, or caesura, between the second and third stresses, and with alliteration linking the two halves of the line; this pattern is occasionally varied _______ six-stress lines.
Заполните пропуск: When he published his first book ___________ 1914, Bloomfield was strongly influenced by Wundt's psychology of language.
Заполните пропуск: Whereas in ancient Chinese learning a separate field of study that might be called grammar scarcely took root, in ancient India a sophisticated version __________ this discipline developed early alongside the other sciences.
Заполните пропуск: While the modistae accepted, by modern standards, a restrictive set of categories, the acumen and sweep they brought _______ their task resulted in numerous subtle and fresh syntactic observations.
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