Define if the sentence is simple.
А) A genre that does not fit easily into the categories already mentioned is political verse,of which a good deal was written in the 15th century.
В) Much of it was avowedly and often crudely propagandist, especially during the Wars of the Roses, though a piece like the Agincourt Carol shows that it was already possible to strike the characteristically Englishnote of insular patriotism soon after 1415.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) As well as being a poem of profound human sympathy and insight, it also has a marked philosophical dimension derived from Chaucer's reading of Boethius' De consolatione philosophiae, a work that he also translated in prose.
В) His consummate skill in narrative art, however, was most fully displayed in The Canterbury Tales (c. 1387–1400), an unfinished series of stories purporting to be told by a group of pilgrims journeying from London to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket and back.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) Because the manuscripts of medieval English plays were usually ephemeral performance scripts rather than reading matter, very few examples have survived from what once must have been a very large dramatic literature.
В) What little survives from before the 15th century includes some bilingual fragments, indicating that the same play might have been given in English or Anglo-Norman, according tothe composition of the audience.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) John Capgrave's Chronicle of England (c. 1462) and Sir John Fortescue's On the Governance of England (c. 1470) were part of the same trend.
В) At its best, the style of such works could be vigorous and straightforward, close to the language of everyday speech, like that found in the chance survivals of private letters of the period.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) The 15th century saw the consolidation of English prose as a respectable medium for serious writings of various kinds.
В) The anonymous Brut chronicle survives in more manuscripts than any other medieval English work and was instrumental in fostering a new sense of national identity.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) The mystery plays were long cyclic dramas of the Creation, Fall, and Redemption of mankind, based mostly on biblical narratives.
В) They usually included a selection of Old Testament episodes (such as the stories of Cain and Abel and Abraham and Isaac) but concentrated mainly on the life and Passion of Jesus Christ.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) As soon as Sanskrit became known to the Western learned world the unravelling of comparative Indo-European grammar ensued and the foundations were laid for the whole 19th-century edifice of comparative philology and historical linguistics.
В) Whereas in ancient Chinese learning a separate field of study that might be called grammar scarcely took root, in ancient India a sophisticated version of this discipline developed early alongside the other sciences.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) Best known and most numerous among letters are those of the Paston family of Norfolk, but significant collections were also left by the Celys of London and the Stonors of Oxfordshire.
В) More eccentric prose stylists of the period were the religious controversialist Reginald Pecock and John Skelton, whose “aureate” translation of the Bibliotheca historica of Diodorus Siculus stands in marked contrast to the demotic exuberance of his verse.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) But, for this, Sanskrit was simply a part of the data; Indian grammatical learning played almost no direct part.
В) A study of Indian logic in relation to Pāṇinian grammar alongside Aristotelian and Western logic in relation to Greek grammar and its successors could bring illuminating insights.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) In addition to a number of more or less execrable popular romances of the type satirized long before by Chaucer in “Sir Thopas,” the Percy manuscript also contains a number of impressive ballads very much like those collected from oral sources in the 18th and 19th centuries.
В) The extent of medieval origin of the poems collected in Francis J. Child'sEnglish and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–98)is debatable.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) It meant the study of the values of the letters and of accentuation and prosody and, in this sense, was an abstract intellectual discipline; and it also meant the skill of literacy and thus embraced applied pedagogy.
В) Yet modern specialists in the field still share their concerns and interests.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) Most of the developments associated with theoretical grammar grew out of philosophy and criticism; and in these developments a repeated duality of themes crosses and intertwines.
В) Aelius Donatus, of the 4th century AD, and Priscian, an African of the 6th century, and their colleagues were slightly more systematic than their Greek models but were essentially retrospective rather than original.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) Nineteenth-century workers, however, recognized that the native tradition of phonetics in ancient India was vastly superior to Western knowledge; and this had important consequences for the growth of the science of phonetics in the West.
В) As might be imagined, this perceptive Indian grammatical work has held great fascination for 20th-century theoretical linguists.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) Oral transmission was probably common, and the survival of much of what is extant is fortuitous.
В) In the same manuscript, but in a rather different vein, is The Nut-Brown Maid, an enchanting and expertly managed dialogue-poem on female constancy.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) The emergence of grammatical learning in Greece is less clearly known than is sometimes implied, and the subject is more complex than is often supposed; here only the main strands can be sampled.
В) And the philologic alanalogists with their regularizing surface segmentation show striking kinship of spirit with the modern school of structural (or taxonomic or glossematic) grammatical theorists.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) The Percy Folio manuscript, a 17th-century antiquarian collection of such material, may be a fair sampling of the repertoire of the late medieval itinerant entertainer.
В) Several of the Robin Hood ballads undoubtedly were known in the 15th century, and the characteristic laconically repetitious and incremental style of the ballads is also to be seen in the enigmatic Corpus Christi Carol, preserved in an early 16th-century London grocer's commonplace book.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) The term hē grammatikē technē (“the art of letters”) had two senses.
В) The anomalists, who concentrated on surface irregularity and who looked then for regularities deeper down (as the Stoics sought them in logic) bear a resemblanceto contemporary scholars of the transformationalist school.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) There are three major ways in which the Sanskrit tradition has had an impact on modern linguistic scholarship.
В) Even though the study of Sanskrit grammar may originally have had the practical aim of keeping the sacred Vedic texts and their commentaries pure and intact, the study of grammar in India in the 1st millennium BC had already become an intellectual end in itself.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) Thirdly, there is in the rules or definitions (sutras) of Pāṇini a remarkably subtle and penetrating account of Sanskrit grammar.
В) The construction of sentences, compound nouns, and the like is explained through ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner strikingly similar in part to modes of contemporary theory.
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Define if the sentence is simple.
А) This side of what was to become “grammatical” learning was distinctly applied, particular, and less exalted by comparison with other pursuits.
В) Up to this point a field that was at times called ars grammatica was a congeries of investigations, both theoretical and practical, drawn from the work and interests of literacy, scribeship, logic, epistemology, rhetoric, textual philosophy, poetics, and literary criticism.
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Complete the sentence: You wouldn’t want to work hard to constitute something as valuable that you would then lose. Thus the outcome of this effort is likely to be a person who constitutes little as valuable, and even less as having negative value. This is very close the ascetic ideal,
Define the sentence: I don’t think so.
Complete the sentence: Another possible response is to accept that our unreflective judgments are basically correct, and to argue that philosophy’s job is not to change them, but to systematize them. I consider this to be a much better response,
Complete the sentence: Another possible response is to accept that our unreflective judgments are basically correct, and to argue that philosophy’s job is not to change them, but to systematize them. I consider this to be a much better response,
Complete the sentence: As usual the obvious solution is no solution at all. To explain why I must overthrow the simplistic model of desire that we have been using so far,
Complete the sentence: But I have my doubts whether this is really a solution either. The problem of happiness was only in part the problem of avoiding unhappiness. The other part was trying to gain happiness. Being free of desires might be a way
Complete the sentence: But suppose that somehow we managed to constitute the world in some extremely unlikely way, such that we had many desires and they were always being satisfied. This is to be as charitable as possible to the idea that we can be happy by adjusting how
Complete the sentence: But why suppose that every philosophical deficiency gives rise to contradiction? Is it not possible to be consistently mistaken? There is nothing inconsistent with believing that one is under the power of an evil deceiver, but
Complete the sentence: Certainly it removes discomfort, which may give it the illusion of producing pleasure, since you are better off afterwards. But not being
Complete the sentence: For example, a system of laws allows the law to apply to every possible case, while a simple collection of rulings does not. And I think some would claim that this is what goes on in philosophy, that a system of
Complete the sentence: Given this, the solution to the problem of happiness may seem to lie in how we constitute value in the world. Since constituting acts are something we preform they must be under our control. Thus we could, in theory, choose to constitute the world of value differently. To cease to be unhappy all we would have
Complete the sentence: In any case, it forces us to compare the value of revising our philosophical judgments towards some more perfect ideal to the value of systematizing our judgments. This leads us to the more general question of what the value
Complete the sentence: In any case, it forces us to compare the value of revising our philosophical judgments towards some more perfect ideal to the value of systematizing our judgments. This leads us to the more general question of what the value of systematization is. In general systematization allows us to extend from a few knowns to unknowns. For example, a system of laws allows the law to apply to every possible case, while a simple collection of rulings does not. And I think some would claim that this is
Complete the sentence: In other words: “happiness” is such a scheme is still subject to the whims of fate, no matter how pleasant we posit them to be. But true happiness
Complete the sentence: Is this the death of intuition and common sense as a standard for philosophy? Probably not. Those who like such standards are rarely blind to
Complete the sentence: Is this the death of intuition and common sense as a standard for philosophy? Probably not. Those who like such standards are rarely blind to the obvious consequence that taking them to be the standard implies that we are always correct in our philosophical judgments. There are ways
Complete the sentence: It is extremely unstable because it naturally fades away in a short amount of time. A succession of these pleasures, however long it is extended, is not stable either. It is unstable because it is entirely
Complete the sentence: I’m going to simply pass over this response since it doesn’t seem plausible to me. First it’s not clear how conflicting judgments are to be corrected. What makes changing one a better idea than changing the other? And,
Complete the sentence: Let me illustrate how this model works through an example. To get the ball rolling we must first suppose that we constitute something as
Complete the sentence: Once we start to constituting something as having value it has a kind of inertia; it requires work to change how we constitute it. Secondly, not all pleasures and pains come from desires;
Complete the sentence: Or perhaps it is just an impulse. Now in most cases we probably would quickly cease to judge this thing to be valuable as quickly as
Complete the sentence: Perhaps we remark to a friend how nice it is. Or perhaps we do some research about how much it would cost to buy one. Now we have
Complete the sentence: Previously happiness was distinguished from a mere moment of pleasure by defining happiness as having a kind of stability. A single
Complete the sentence: Some separations are greater than others and thus require more work to overcome. And this effort is inexorably bound up
Complete the sentence: Still, these are not insurmountable difficulties. It is possible to change how we constitute value in the world if we work at it long enough. Obviously since what we possess is constantly in a state of flux we would
Complete the sentence: The constitution of value theory makes us the cause of this, specifically our constituting acts. A constituting act is a mental act or choice which amounts to the association of some significance with an object of experience. For example, words mean what they mean to us because of such constituting acts:
Complete the sentence: The desire to eat when you are hungry. The desire to eat your favorite food. The desire for more money. The desire for a new car. Of these four only
Complete the sentence: The difference seems to be that it is a desire away from something rather than towards something. It is a desire to get away from hunger. The other three are desires towards something, good food, money, and a new car, respectively. But
Complete the sentence: There are ways to deflect the ugly implications of this consequence. One way is to simply deny that it is a consequence. This
Complete the sentence: This can be done by claiming that there are conflicts in our unreflective judgments that need ironing out, and thus that we can’t simply accept all of our intuitions as is. I’m going to simply pass over
Complete the sentence: This is because one of the primary uses of constitution is self-justification; we constitute the world so as to make sense of it, and to
Complete the sentence: This model isn’t necessarily wrong as much as it is overly simplistic, and leaves out important relationships. The first of these stems
Complete the sentence: Through such acts meaning is given to otherwise meaningless physical events. The constitution of value operates in essentially the same way, except that, rather than meaning being associated with things, value is. Such constituting acts are the foundation of our judgments concerning what is and isn’t important; we constitute some things as having value, and other things as valueless. And what we
Complete the sentence: Thus we would be happy, because all our desires would be fulfilled. But if things were really this easy there would be no problem of happiness, people would have figured it out for themselves already. One problem is that,
Complete the sentence: What distinguishes the things desires pull us towards from those that they push us away from is the constitution of value. The constitution of value is a way of describing how we create value in the world. Or, in other words,
Complete the sentence: What makes changing one a better idea than changing the other? And, more importantly, it is obvious that this approach aims for mere consistency. But why suppose that every philosophical deficiency gives rise to contradiction? Is it
Complete the sentence: What this shows is that some desires produce pleasure while others don’t. There must be some feature that is the cause of this division. This mysterious feature,
Complete the sentence: Which in turn may eventually lead us to put more effort into acquiring it, which will in turn increase our estimation of its value. Thus for anything which we are not hard-wired to find pleasure in there is a correlation between how
Complete the sentence: Why don’t I have a positive desire towards hunger and a negative desire away from what I now consider my favorite food? Is it something in the things themselves? It doesn’t seem likely since
Complete the sentence: It is exceedingly difficult to constitute something as valuable which causes us pain,
Define the sentence: Because even if we live in a deterministic universe it doesn’t make any difference to us.
Define the sentence: But how are desires connected to pleasurable feelings?
Define the sentence: But in the process of doing so I have been playing that game which I despise so much, namely pretending that scientific findings have some bearing on this issue.
Define the sentence: But neither does this mean that I must take them to have free will of this sort.
Define the sentence: But we want to know what it is about a desire that produces happiness.
Define the sentence: Consider some very simple desires, such as the desire to stretch your legs when they are cramping up.
Define the sentence: Does fulfilling every desires produce pleasure?
Define the sentence: Does fulfilling this desire make you happy?
Define the sentence: I don’t know all the relevant physical facts about previous states of the universe – in fact I can’t know them – and thus I will never be in a position to be able to predict with complete accuracy the choices of other people.
Define the sentence: I have been pretending they have some bearing to show that, even under all the assumptions made by the advocates of this sort of free will, even assuming it was Newtonian physics that was the biggest obstacle to this sort of free will (which it isn’t, since, again, philosophy is independent from scientific theories), it still cannot be justified by appeals to quantum physics.
Define the sentence: In other words, as far as I am able to know there will never be any contradiction in taking myself and others to have free will of the “uncaused cause” sort, even if such a thing is physically impossible.
Define the sentence: It emphasizes their “radical freedom”, their ability to make choices that go against everything that they have previously done and said.
Define the sentence: Now I am going to stop playing that game – I’m going to stop being a bad role model – and describe how this sort of free will can be argued for and against independently of scientific theories.
Define the sentence: Now we can return to the naïve answer to the problem of happiness, which was that happiness comes from pleasure, which comes from getting what we want.
Define the sentence: Philosophically we have a choice, we are faced with the question: “what is the best way to conceive of the ability of ourselves and others to make choices?”
Define the sentence: The forces behind them are irrelevant from a philosophical perspective.
Define the sentence: The question of free will is really one of how we choose understand the choices that we make and that others make, not the forces behind them (how we choose to constitute them).
Define the sentence: The “uncaused cause” conception of free will emphasizes the randomness and unpredictability of people’s choices.
Define the sentence: We know from experience that they are connected, that is not in question.
Define the sentence: Everything I have said so far has been a negative claim; I have been arguing that an appeal to physics, even quantum physics, cannot justify this sort of free will.